This paper, produced through the New Climate Economy Cities Research Programme, focuses on one central aspect of urban development: transport and urban form and how the two shape the provision of access to people, goods and services, and information in cities. The more efficient this access, the greater the economic benefits through economies of scale, agglomeration effects and networking advantages. This paper discusses how different urban accessibility pathways impact directly on other measures of human development and environmental sustainability. It also presents the enabling conditions for increasing accessibility and low-carbon mobility in cities.
This paper, produced through the New Climate Economy Cities Research Programme, identifies three groups of cities that will be particularly important for the global economy and climate: Emerging Cities, Global Megacities and Mature Cities. When combined, these 468 cities are projected to contribute over 60 per cent of global GDP growth and over half of global energyrelated emissions growth between 2012 and 2030 under business as usual. Furthermore, this paper reviews the contribution of small urban areas to economic growth and carbon emissions. Finally, this paper explores the potential of the 3C model to maximise the benefits of urban growth while minimising the costs in emerging cities, global megacities and mature cities, and reviews examples of cities where elements of the model have already been implemented.
This paper, produced through the New Climate Economy Cities Research Programme, first examines the importance of the third pillar of the 3C model: coordinated governance. Governance will be particularly crucial in many emerging cities where current levels of capacity are often insufficient for implementing the policy programmes needed to move towards compact urban growth and deliver effective, connected infrastructure. Four elements of coordinated urban governance are essential: (1) multi-level governance with effective coordination of national, regional and city policies; (2) city leadership and financial authority; (3) transparency and accountability; and (4) policy integration at the local level. Municipal governments can also use international and regional networks of cities to transfer knowledge and innovation more effectively. Furthermore, this paper reviews the most promising policy tools for delivering the 3C model. These include: (1) planning policy instruments; (2) pricing instruments; and (3) finance mechanisms.
This paper conducts a comparative analysis of the results of five recently completed studies that examined the economic case for investment in low-carbon development in five cities: Leeds (UK), Kolkata (India), Lima (Peru), Johor Bahru (Malaysia) and Palembang (Indonesia). The results demonstrate that there is a compelling economic case for cities in both developed and developing country contexts to invest, at scale, in cost-effective forms of low-carbon development.
As economic hubs, cities also have a crucial role to play in mitigating global climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has found particularly great opportunities in fastgrowing urban centres in developing countries, but cities at all levels are pursuing climate action. Many of the measures they are choosing – e.g. retrofitting buildings to be more energy-efficient, improving public transit, promoting biking and walking, encouraging denser development – have also been shown to have broader economic and social benefits. This paper looks at this issue in the other direction: how cities’ economic development strategies are likely to affect global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It examines policies and actions that are already widely used by cities to advance economic development and competitiveness, assess the evidence on their net GHG impact, and identify key issues that cities may want to address if they wish to align their climate and economic development goals.
Shifting our fossil-fuelled civilisation to clean modes of production and consumption requires deep transformations in our energy and economic systems. Innovation in physical technologies and social behaviours is key to this transformation. But innovation has not been at the heart of economic models of climate change. This paper reviews the state of the art on the economics of innovation, applies recent insights to climate change. The core insight is that technological innovation is a path-dependent process in which history and expectations matter greatly in determining eventual outcomes.
In the face of increasingly likely dangerous climate change, many developing countries are designing green economy or low-emissions development strategies, but are simultaneously on a course of investment locking them into high-emission infrastructure. Meanwhile, many high-income countries are working to reduce their emissions but are hampered by the cost of switching from an existing capital stock designed for a fossil fuel-based economy. This paper looks at economic aspects of the challenge of escaping carbon lock-in using a “brown-green capital” model. In the model, brown capital is more productive than green capital in a brown capital-dominated economy, while green capital is more productive in a green capital-dominated economy; that is, the model allows for “carbon lock-out”. The paper also explores possible macroeconomic consequences of policies to drive a transition to a low-carbon economy and policy responses in the case that macroeconomic imbalances result.
This paper presents an overview of trade among the G14 as well as key non-G14 economies in the 54 product sub-categories included in the APEC environmental goods list. It also examines for these 54 sub-headings more detailed trade information at the tariff line level (including at the level of more detailed statistical codes) in an attempt to gain some insight into the relative importance of trade in environmental goods. It also analyses additional climate-related products, derived inter alia from earlier ICTSD research, particularly climate technology mapping studies, which could potentially be added to those included in the APEC list for subsequent inclusion in an Environmental Goods Agreement (EGA). The paper presents a preliminary analysis of trade flows and tariffs for this non-exhaustive list of climate-relevant products and components. Finally, it also puts forward proposals on measures needed to make EGA negotiations more transparent as well as facilitate better estimates of global trade flows in environmental goods.
This paper considers the extent to which the Northeast Asian countries - China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan - are collaborating as a legitimate group to produce “green” R&D. Forcing a revision of traditional institutional analysis, such collaboration efforts can overlap with existing policies of regional coordination, but they can also pave the way for future, formal coordination efforts. Employing a mixed methods approach which triangulates data based on expert interviews as well as green patenting output over the last 33 years, it is confirmed here that the presence of the Northeast Asian environmental regime is strongly associated with the development of green R&D among countries in the region. It can be further confirmed that Northeast Asia is on the cusp of becoming a genuine counterweight to the existing dominance of the U.S. and Western Europe.
The paper examines the significance of social policy towards growth of a green economy with particular reference to South Africa. As such, the roles identified are that social policy: constructs ideological foundations which enhance growth of a green economy, promotes efficiency of green economy advancement, improves competitiveness of green economy emancipation and enables sustainability participation required of private firms and financial entities thereby enhancing establishment of a green economy when adopting economic market policies. Further, the paper outlines specific recommendations which are essential towards constructing a green economy by developing an efficient social policy in South Africa.